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Mar
29
Emergency Intervention and Good Sam
A tragic death forty-six years ago launched an intriguing field of love research: emergency intervention. I’ve been wondering what it means for imitating the Good Samaritan.
In March of 1964, Katherine “Kitty” Genovese was attacked and stabbed repeatedly coming home from work one morning. At least thirty-eight people watched or heard the attack. But not a single person came to Kitty’s assistance. An anonymous caller reported the incident a half-hour later. Before help could arrive, she bled to death.
When the public heard that thirty-eight witnesses did not intervene, a flurry of questions arose. People wondered if such apathy said something about New Yorkers or big city culture. Others wondered if this tragic event reveals a fundamental flaw in human nature. People assumed the death of Kitty Genovese proves that humans are apathetic, callous, and indifferent.
Social psychologists Bibb Latané and John Darley and other researchers, however, decided to search for experimental answers. They wanted to know why onlookers and witnesses of crisis often fail to respond. Their research takes the name “emergency intervention.”
Latané and Darley focus upon the decision-making processes we use when deciding whether to help during situation-specific tragedies. The social scientists have developed a five-step model for how bystanders decide whether to intervene to help in an emergency.
The first step in the decision model is simply noticing the emergency event. This may seem rather obvious, but various factors influence a bystander’s ability to notice a victim. Bystanders experiencing bad moods, for instance, are less likely to be sensitive to their surroundings. Bystanders are also more likely to notice vivid events. A victim of “ho-hum accident” witnessed by a bystander having a bad day is less likely to receive help.
The second step is interpretation. A bystander must not only notice a tragic incident, he or she must also interpret it as requiring assistance. In a series of studies, researchers have documented that bystanders are more likely to intervene when victims express strong distress cues. Those who observe an event and are confused by the victim’s silent or passive actions wonder if they should intervene. Bystanders are more likely to help screamers than quiet victims.
Sometimes environmental factors confuse or distract witnesses. In one study, a person wearing a cast dropped books on the sidewalk directly in front of oncoming strangers. In some instances, these books were dropped as a power lawn mower roared nearby. In other instances, books were dropped and the mower was not running. When the power lawn mower was silent, bypassers helped the injured book dropper eighty percent of the time. When the power mower was running loudly, however, bypassers helped only fifteen percent of the time. Excessive stimulation hampers a person’s ability to interpret what to do in an emergency.
The third step in Latané and Darley’s model for emergency intervention decision making is responsibility taking. Experiments show that bystanders who believe themselves the only witness to an emergency are more likely to help. Bystanders may shirk responsibility, because they assume others are better equipped or have more knowledge for helping victims. This phenomenon, labeled “diffusion of responsibility,” probably accounts for why no one intervened to help Kitty Genovese.
In one study, college students heard from an intercom system about an emergency nearby. Students who believed themselves the only ones hearing the emergency message were more likely to take responsibility to help than students who believed others also heard the message. Students who believed people others heard but were somehow unable to intervene were as likely to help as those who heard and believed themselves alone.
Step four in the intervention decision-making process involves deciding what kind of help to give. Here the issue is not so much willingness to help. The issue is discerning the best way to aide in an emergency.
One study tested the effectiveness of those with first-aid training when encountering an emergency. Both those with training and those without were equally as likely to respond to help a bleeding person. Perhaps not surprisingly, the medical assistance of those with first-aid training was most effective in the emergency. Those without such training often made the emergency worse. Sometimes those who believe they lack the expertise to help effectively will fail to intervene in emergencies like the one involving Kitty Genovese. Bystanders may worry that intervening will cause more harm than good.
The fifth and final step in the emergency intervention process is the actual implementation of the decision to help. This step raises questions of costs and rewards for a potential helper.
A number of experiments have been done under the general rubric of assessing costs and rewards to those who help the needy. Many experiments are based on the notion that people generally want to maximize rewards and minimize costs. The cost-reward approach is associated with an economic view of social interaction, and one of its strengths is its capacity for measurement.
When implementing the decision to help a victim, bystanders may consider costs and benefits related to the time and effort that giving aide requires. Some may decide that the risk for personal harm is too great. Others may intervene to avoid negative emotional consequences – e.g., guilt – they may face should they choose not to help. Some may help because they know that helping will likely put them in a good mood. Others help because they find the victim in some way attractive, similar to himself or herself, or friendly. As costs increase, the general likelihood a bystander will help decreases. As rewards increase, the likelihood a bystander will help increases.
The cost-benefit aspect of decision-making has its limits, of course. For instance, the scheme seems not to account well for bystanders who help despite the costs seeming to outweigh the benefits. Some people act self-sacrificially so that the costs for helping far outweigh any rewards. But even the generally most self-sacrificial people may choose not to intervene, because they perceive the cost of helping too high.
When I think about emergency intervention research, I often think of Jesus’ story about the Samaritan who rescued a beaten man on the Jericho road. It seems like a classic victim intervention example.
In the story, a victim of violence and theft receives no help from two with whom he apparently had much in common. A priest and Levite pass by without pausing to give aid.
When I hear this part of the story, I wonder why I don’t help every victim I encounter. I wonder why I sometimes pass on by those who need desperately need help.
I try not to be too easy on myself or too hard when I think about my own efforts to help those in need. On the one hand, I can’t rescue every victim I encounter. In a world in which the needs far outweigh my individual abilities, resources, and time, I can’t intervene in every emergency. I’m not superman. And I shouldn't feel guilty that my finitude restricts me from being the answer to every question of suffering.
When I first began work as a youth pastor, I thought I could always be the answer. I was idealistic. I ran myself ragged trying to help everyone in need. As a result, my family relationships and my personal health suffered. It didn’t take too long to discover I can’t be the Good Samaritan for every tragedy in the world – even every tragedy in my small congregation.
On the other hand, I know I sometimes give poor excuses for not helping victims of tragedy. I can rationalize my apathy. I can fail to help with my money, my time, my resources, or my empathy. The priest and Levite become my models, not the Good Samaritan.
Several factors largely influence my decisions now about how I decide to help those who suffer. One is my own discernment process. I find helpful listening to advice from wise others, spending time in prayer and reflection, and trying to be aware of the still small voice of what I think is the Holy Spirit’s leading. These help me discern when to rescue some and not others. This discernment process is not precise or inerrant. But I do think it is often helpful.
The second factor has to do with motivation: I need to be empowered to rescue victims. I think God is a necessary source of power for all motivation for doing good. Every good gift comes from the Father.
But other factors also motivate me. For instance, the community of believers with whom I associate plays a key role in persuading me to help others. The educational processes I have pursued often serve as motivational forces. And the memories I have of times that I have been a victim can motivate me. I tend to interpret the old phrase, “there but for the grace of God go I,” in this sense (not in the sense that God picks and chooses who will suffer).
A number of recent scientific studies suggest that rescuers are more likely to help victims whom they consider similar to themselves. Shared likeness motivates rescuers. I tend to help those whom I think are similar to me in some way.
My goal, however, is not to let the tendency to help those similar restrict my decisions help. Instead, my goal is to see similarities I share with everyone I meet.
Jesus says that the Good Samaritan had compassion for the beaten victim on the Jericho road. The Greek word translated “compassion” suggests empathy. To empathize with others is to identify ourselves in some way with them. The Good Samaritan’s empathetic response motivated him to intervene in an emergency.
The concluding words to Jesus' story are simple: "Go and do likewise." They serve well as a basis for our ethics. But they don't solve all the issues of discernment and motivation. We still must make difficult decisions as we encounter the myriad of crises in our world both globally and locally.
May we learn how best to follow the example of the Good Samaritan in our day and in our ways.
Posted in 2010 under Love and Altruism
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Comments
Paul
03.29.2010
8:55am
I can recall several times in my life when emergency situations were in front of me. I would very much like to say that in each I acted to intervene and provide assistance. I did not.
One of the greatest regrets of and one of the greatest sources of shame in my life was failure to intervene in a non-life threatening situation. I witnessed a man beat and cut his girlfriend in my living room. Theirs was a habitually abusive relationship-the victim would turn on anyone who suggested she get out. So maybe there was an unconscious or pre-conscious idea that she chose this. I don’t know. I do know that fear was a factor in my choosing not to intervene.
I really do not understand this fear for I have acted against my physical best interests before and since to help. Hence this is a source of shame for me. Maybe it was the dope and that this man was the connection. I don’t know the answer to this.
Chadwick Pearsall
02.17.2011
5:29pm
For Christians, intervention is not an option, but a necessity. There are countless calls in the Bible to take care of the marginalized and the vulnerable. One of my favorite scriptures in the Bible, James 1:27, says that, “Religion that God our Father accepts as pure and faultless is this: to look after orphans and widows in their distress…” This is a direct call to intervention in the world that all Christians must strive to satisfy.
Joshua Rast
02.17.2011
5:36pm
It is hard to believe that 38 people could stand by as someone is stabbed to death but it is not the only time I heard of that happening. Last year I heard that about 10 people what a girl get gang raped and murdered on a school yard and did nothing. They did not even call police until it went on for about 20 minutes. I can’t imagine just sitting back. I imagine in those types of situations people are just to scared to risk their own safety. I would like to think that i would be fighting and doing anything possible to help. On a larger scale the world sat back and did very little with the genocides in Africa. I suppose that may be because we feel that as one person we can’t do much in those cases that seem so far away. Maybe their are some of those distant cases that we can do nothing. If god puts us in a position to help i think we need to.
Stacie Martin
02.17.2011
5:37pm
The fact that the story in the article did not surprise me takes me back a little. One one hand I read stories like this and I can only think about how incredibly selfish human beings are, and how when it comes down to it we all must realize that everything we do ultimately is to aid in our own gain. On the other hand, I read this article and I almost justify some of the people. Through the studies, we hear that people will often be more prone to help if the individual is in obvious signs of distress. Maybe, this woman just took it and didn’t put up a fight . I’m not trying to make excuses for what happened, just trying to analyze all of the reasons as to why this might have happened instead of assuming what many of the individuals who have not explored the depths of their humanity yet would say.
Although this sounds extremely negative and pessimistic, I just don’t think we can expect people to go out of their way to put their lives in front of another’s (especially if they don’t have something powerful to live for).
David Webb
02.17.2011
10:56pm
In Matthew 28:16-20, the section of scripture often referred to as The Great Commission, Jesus tells his disciples to “go out and make disciples of all nations.” In this, I believe we as Christians have an obligation to be in the world and show the world the love that Christ showed us. With “emergency intervention” research showing that man at his very nature has to debate whether or not assisting a stranger is worth his time, we as Christians should rise to the occasion of The Great Commission, rise to the opportunities to show God’s love, and seek out opportunities to help people who are in need. We should seek opportunities out in the world to let God’s love flow through us and through the work that we do.
Joshua Mundy
02.17.2011
11:12pm
I really appreciated reading this article and I find the 5 step model for an emergency situation important that I often sometime ignore. As long as I can remember, I have always had a passion helping each others in need and being the Good Samaritan. This passion drives me every day and is one of my main reasons why I would like to be a Physician one day. Working in the health care field for more than 5 years now, I have understood the problems with being a Good Samaritan. One of them is willing to take the responsibility for your actions.
One day I was walking into Walmart and I had watched an older woman slip on the floor right in the entry way. Watching people walk past her without assisting her made me angry and my natural instinct kicked in. I rushed to assist her and assisted her getting herself to sit up. When I began to help the woman, I asked her if I could look at her knee that she was complaining about. Not knowing this woman had stitches in her knee from a recent surgery, I started helping her move her knee. After lifting up her pant leg, I saw the stitches and told her to stop moving her knee immediately. It is important to access every emergency situation, big or small, because sometimes you can end up doing more damage than has already been done. I could have possibly torn some of her stitches and caused more damage. I would have taken full responsibility if I did some damage to her knee, but sometimes we are not willing to take on that responsibility.
It is important that we follow the five step model when assisting someone in an emergency situation, but I can’t help think that culture can have a negative or positive impact. Growing up in a small town, it was common for people to do things for others or assist others in emergency situations. But living in Nampa now, I rarely see this Good Samaritan action. I believe why this occurs is because the environment I grew up in people were considered to be more trustworthy and I knew just about everybody in my town. In Nampa, I don’t know a lot of people, so it would be unlikely for me to assist someone that I did not know.
evan chaney
02.18.2011
1:16am
This has been an interesting topic i have seen many times in news and stories. Yet I have always wondered why people do not react to certain situations. Then I would wonder what I would do in a situation like this. Hopefully different than what I have read. but its easy to type something like this out. But from what I have done in the past with helping, I totally agree with not being superman,nor being the good Samaritan in every situation. I feel that we look at situations and quickly decide if we can do this or leave it to someone else. Seeing people on the side of the road, you would think that they would be able to call someone to help or flag a car down. so you would just move on. I feel that could be done in a lot of situations, even ones were violence is used. In dire situations, I feel people who really want to help will and I have seen it many times before.
Matt Larson
02.18.2011
1:38am
It fascinates me that people would make a conscious descision to allow others to take the initiative when in other circumstances, such as being alone, they would act differently. What occurs in the gap between the two situations? I find it contradictory and odd that in one moment we would allow apathy to overtake us and in another act in compulsive compassion. What in us reasons that passiveness and/or inaction is an appropriate response to injustice and other offenses? One response that comes to mind is the desensitization of contemporary society and degradation of culture. Through such means as the media, technology, and lack of appropriate council (e.g. parenting, teachers, authorities, etc.)
Amelia Heller
02.18.2011
9:54am
I find this very interesting to think about. It also sparks my mind of a study I saw where when someone is in a professional uniform, people are more likely to take direction and often times will do something unethical to appease the “person in charge”. People are mindful people who often act selfishly. This is very interesting because most would deny selfish tendancies. Something doesn’t add up in the end and it is the always existant ego of mankind.
Marisa Gubbe
02.18.2011
11:47am
This is an extremely difficult moral issue for humankind. Each of us likes to think we would have the courage and the love it takes to be the Good Samaritan in every situation we come across. I agree with Dr. Oord that we can’t let ourselves get too consumed with achieving this that we neglect our loved ones whom we are the most close too, however. And we are not superman, we can’t do it all. But I also find myself saying the same things as Ooard; “On the other hand, I know I sometimes give poor excuses for not helping victims of tragedy. I can rationalize my apathy. I can fail to help with my money, my time, my resources, or my empathy. The priest and Levite become my models, not the Good Samaritan.” It is an issue that tears at me inside when I really think about it. Which person would I be? I pray that God can give me the strength and the love to be the Good Samaritan when I am the one called to do so.
Ryan Mangum
02.18.2011
11:50am
The idea that we only help those who are like us has been a long-standing idea in social psychology. Helping members of your “in-group” (any group that you associate with; American, Christian, business major, soccer player, etc.) is much easier than helping those in “out-groups.” This is what is so intriguing about Christ and his message; he was always calling people to go against their nature. It is not natural to love your enemies, it is not natural to give all you have to poor, and it isn’t natural to go out of your way to help those outside of your in-group. But when we do these things, it is amazing the kind of restoration and healing that takes place in the lives of both the people involved, and the people who merely witness.
Hyesu Hwang
02.18.2011
12:00pm
This was a very interesting article to read because I have heard about this research several times. I have also hear about the research about the other occasion where quite a few of people were watching someone being victimized. In a one way it is partially understandable as human’s decision but I can not stop thinking that it is really sad to look at these researches being done and also thinking that I may also act as the some people did makes me feel very depress.
Elisa Decker
03.10.2011
1:36pm
I think that many people decide whether or not to help in an emergency situation based on two things: their experience and the surroundings. In my experience, I have not done a whole lot of good in emergency situations, not because I cannot help, but because many times, I will avoid dangerous situations because I am a smaller female, so I don’t think I could do much in the way of stopping it, and I feel that many times, I would be putting myself in danger as well. On the other hand, my fiance is in the Air Force, has worked as a fire fighter and EMT and is rather intimidating in stature. If he runs into any problems, then he usually deals with them, even if they out him in harms way. The only time he won’t get involved is if I am there and he doesn’t want me to be in danger. I work with kids in the summers and have had to deal with sex offenders coming onto our property, and have stood my ground very well in those situations, so that is where the situational aspect comes into play. In the end, I think that if you can help, then you should, while still avoiding harm to oneself.
Kelsie Thorngren
05.13.2011
5:51pm
I had to ask myself if I would have done anything had I been a bystander as Kitty Genovese was murdered. I would like to believe I wouldn’t have hesitated at all, but if thirty-eight witnesses didn’t do anything, what are the odds that I would have been any different?
There is a Good Samaritan Law that protects “good Samaritans” who voluntarily aid in emergency situations. Many healthcare professionals, under the institutions they are employed at, are required to be good Samaritans in any emergency situation they encounter when they are not working. I wonder how often that requirement is the only reason some of the healthcare workers give aid, and I wonder if I will ever find myself in an emergency situation basing my decision to help a victim on a policy or my humanity. And would my decision be effected by the similarities or differences I may have with the victim?
Rebecca Schreiber
05.13.2011
9:38pm
I think the biggest thing that stops someone from intervening is fear or discomfort. While there are cases where people do amazing things to help despite fear or danger, I think it stops a lot of people. There were times last school year where I was in desperate need of help, but what actually happened is friends I had before became more distant the more I needed them. I think I caused them to grow uncomfortable. They didn’t know what to do for me so they did nothing. I can’t say I blame them. If put in a situation where I witnessed someone being attacked, I’m not sure I know what I’d do. I do know I’d be too scared to do anything direct. I’d call the police though. The fact that no one did that boggles my mind, as even fear shouldn’t stop you from doing that.
Ashley Duvall
05.14.2011
10:34am
I remember learning about this bystander effect in psychology and its an interesting one. I try to put myself in a situation where I am one of the bystanders. In the example of the women getting stabbed to death I’m not sure that I would have jumped right in and try to stop the man, but I am also not as strong as the man. I would have called the police or gone and got help in some way or if that was already done I would have sat with the women and tried to control her bleeding until further helped arrived. I think if you see someone in need you should try to help them to the best of your ability, but you also need to protect yourself from harm. It doesn’t help anyone if you end up just as hurt as they are.
David Silva
05.14.2011
1:51pm
It is hard to not repeat what has already been said in the earlier comments. I think parts of Josh Siverson’s comment match most closely with my views. We each have our own strengths and weaknesses and I believe we should in accordance with those. When we see a situation we may not be the correct person to respond but when we are the proper individual for the job we should act without hesitation. I also don’t think we can respond to a large situation if we are not willing to act in the small situations.
Minh Tran
05.16.2011
11:19am
To see the similarities that have in common with everyone - isn’t it the same as helping those similar in some sense? The Good Samaritan is an inspiriting story about that should be applies by human. But it’s a story and not actual realities. Beside if the world need to look for inspiration in Good Samaritan – then will people from different religions be able to relate to it? Human are sometime indifferent and sometime care only about number 1/self - motivation also do comes in factoring whether one should help. This rise questions in is it ethically acceptable to love/care about oneself? Is love to oneself or to another a duty? Should the ethically minded person aim to love all people equally? Is partial love morally acceptable or permissible?
Gandrews
05.16.2011
6:14pm
Reading this blog, I couldn’t help but think of a lot of instances in my own life that reflect the similarities of the different accounts listed. There was a point in my Christian walk where I thought that I needed to be everybody’s savior and be a person that would help save the world so to speak. In every relationship that I had, I tried to be a counselor, fixing everyone’s problems as well as introduce Jesus to those who didn’t know him. This didn’t last long or turn out very well and I soon found myself frustrated and worn out. I agree that with the blog in that in order for us Christians to not get into this particular state, an abundance of time and fellowship must be devoted to God. Seeking and praying for wisdom, strength and clarity help filter out unnecessary tasks that God may not be directing us to pursue.
Esmeralda Quintero
05.16.2011
7:15pm
I agree with the viewpoints presented in this article. At times when I aid people who are suffering it is either because I have something in common with them or I know them in someway. However, there have been times when I see individuals in distress and in my mind I think well there are a many people who will help them so I am not even going to try. I think this is something that each individual should reflect on. Although none of us can be a superhero and save each life, we can find our strengths that God has given us to help any individual that may come into our lives. For me, I believe God has called me to nursing and even now as I go to clinical I think of how I can impact each of my patients lives and possible save them.
Elizabeth Miller
05.16.2011
7:31pm
I agree that people are more likely to stop and help victims that they think are similar to themselves. Last year I was driving on Overland in heavy traffic and saw an old man lying down on the sidewalk trying and failing to stand up. I was on the other side of the street and stuck at a stop light and had to wait to turn around. By the time I got to the old man, a young thuggish dressed male who was walking past stopped to help the old man to his feet but then continued walking away. I dont know what compelled him to help but he did. I was then able to walk him to the nearest business to call for help because he appeared to have a head injury. Ever since that day I wondered why no one else had stopped to help him, why I and the other young man had been the only ones to offer assistance. It was a very busy road and everyone had the same opportunities as me to help but they hadn’t. If I hadn’t stopped I would have felt absolutely terrible about myself, so I personally could not see why others had not done the same. Just as Jesus said “go and do likewise”, we were all called in that situation.
Lateef Williams
05.16.2011
10:14pm
People in an emergency seem to panic and begin to think about themselves and how they can’t hurt themselves or someone else. When a person see’s another individual getting hurt, the first thing that comes to their mind is if i were to go out there i would be hurt. I think this is very selfish but we all do this. In the neigborhood i grew up in not helping and minding your business is the right thing to do.
Jessica Carpenter
05.16.2011
10:29pm
At first I found it odd that as humans we tend to evaluate a situation in which one needs help prior to stepping in, but as I went through the steps it made sense why there isn’t an instant reaction each time someone needs help. It sounds sad, but I can think of situations in which one would do best to evaluate their ability to help in the best way they could. For instance, if a person is walking along side a lake and happens to see someone drowning and shouting for help, it would be wise to know how to swim first. Not only would knowing how to swim be optimal, but also evaluating the environment. If it is in the middle of winter then more than likely both parties will suffer from hypothermia. I’m not saying the individual should not help, I’m saying that he or she should evaluate the situation and act in a way that will truly be helpful and not put the both of them in danger.
I found one of the results from the test to be very disturbing, it was the tendency for those to help others more like themselves. I can understand this, but what I don’t get is how those who are not similar could be left helpless. I believe we have to remember that all of us are similar, we are human beings and God’s children, it is because of these everyone should do what they can within their ability to help someone.
Minh Tran
05.24.2011
4:47pm
To see the similarities that have in common with everyone - isn’t it the same as helping those similar in some sense? The Good Samaritan is an inspiriting story about that should be applies by human. But it’s a story and not actual realities. Beside if the world need to look for inspiration in Good Samaritan – then will people from different religions be able to relate to it? Human are sometime indifferent and sometime cares only for self - motivation also doing comes in factoring whether one should help. This rise questions in is it ethically acceptable to love/care about oneself? Is love to oneself or to another a duty? Should the ethically minded person aim to love all people equally? Is partial love morally acceptable or permissible?
Kaley Lione
01.15.2012
4:31pm
This was extremely interesting to me. I like that you explained the research that was done to see why people don’t always help. It is easy to say that we stick to our selves due to our selfish nature, but in truth I believe that most of the time we just don’t know what to do or how to help.
Dan Benjamin
01.19.2012
3:21pm
Helping others in need is an important tendency all should strive towards. When I see someone in need I want to help them. However, I rarely do because of my limited resources in communal standards. I am a jobless college student with no trace of a career path after college. So I have to be careful with how/where I spend my money to ensure as much financial stability as possible. I recognize that giving money is not the only way to help out others in need. But at my young age I really dont have any other resources to offer. I wish I could help out those I see, but its just not possible. I just hope that one day I will have the resources to help out others who need it.
Kaylee Wilkes
01.29.2012
7:26pm
It is an intense burden to carry the needs of everyone you meet in life and even those you simply hear about. However, I do not think this is what life is all about. I think God simply calls us to love to the best of our ability and to continue to stretch ourselves out of our comfort zone. I am physically and financially incapable of helping everyone, but those around me that I can assist, I should.
Whenever I feel unsure of how I should respond to something I feel comfortable falling back on the saying to “imitate Christ in everything”- However He would respond is how I should respond to situations!